Grolsons Home . Family Page . AAAforSuccess . IT: International Teacher . IBMusic. The History of Western Music in 5000 Words or Less*
The Baroque
(1600 - 1750)
Characteristics of Baroque MusicUnity of mood: What begins joyful, remains so, usually for the duration of the movement.
Continuity of rhythm: contributes to unity of mood--rhythmic patterns are repeated throughout. Many fast movements display a continuous eighth note pulse.
Elaborate and ornamental melodies: Baroque means ornamented--it fills the space given. There is a sense of continous unfolding or expanding, and Baroque melodies are often difficult to sing.
Terraced dynamics: The shift from loud to soft happens all at once--like stepping up or down a terrace. Crescendos and diminuendos are NOT typical of Baroque music.
Predominently polyphonic texture: different lines compete for the listener's attention. Homophony was also common, however; a piece might shift in texture.
A new importance of chords and thus the bass line (basso continuo). In earlier times chords were the by-product of melodic motion; by the Baroque the chord progression itself became important.
Words and music: In vocal music, the music is used to depict the meaning of specific words; for example "heaven" might be set to a high note and "hell" to a low one.
Music in Baroque Society
Music is written to order, to meet the specific demands of churches and courts. While a music director's pay and prestige are quite high, he is still a high-class servant. Musicians are employed by wealthy royalty, by towns, and by churches.
Important Genres
Binary (AB) and ternary (ABA) form prevalent throughout these genres:
Concerto Grosso : a multi-movement instrumental work contrasting the texture of a small group of soloists against the "tutti," a larger group.
Fugue: an imitative, polyphonic composition based on a main theme, or subject. The different voices imitate the subject.
Opera: essentially, DRAMA, that is sung to orchestral accompaniment.
Oratorio: Opera, performed without sets, costumes, or acting.
Cantata: literally, "sung." Specifically in the Baroque, a work for soloists, organ, orchestra and chorus, with a German religious text.
Sonata: an instrumental composition in several movements, for one to eight instruments.
Suite: a set of several related dance-inspired instrumental movements (like allemande, courante, gavotte, sarabnade, gigue) . Each movement is usually in binary form.
Important Composers
Antonio Vivaldi (1864-1741) Italian.
Because he took holy orders at the age of 25 and because of his red hair, he was known affectionately in Venice as "Il prete roso," the red priest. He spent most of his career as music director at the Pieta, an institution and music school for orphaned girls. The quality of the ensembles attracted audiences from all over Europe; the young ladies comprise one of the finest orchestras in Venice. Vivaldi was a virtuoso violist as well as a famous composer; he is best known for his solo concertos (most for violin) and his concerto grossi.
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) German
Bach embodies the mature Baroque (notice it is the year of his death which historians have chosen as the end of the Baroque era). He came from a long line of town musicians (the line continued to include his sons JC and CPE Bach, as well). He was well respected as a competent organist, and held three important posts during his life: court organist at Weimar, court conductor at Cöthen, and cantor at St. Thomas church in Leipzig. He composed prolifically to meet the demands of these posts; but his music gained the prominent place it has today in music history only many years after his death.
George Frideric Handel (1685-1759), German/English
Unlike Bach, was widely famous and successful during his life. He was born one month before Bach, not from a musical family (his father was a barber-surgeon), in Halle, Germany. After good success as a harpsichordist and violinist in Hamburg, and as a composer in Italy, and then as a well-paid music director in Hanover, he went to London where he became England's most prominent composer and a favorite of Queen Anne. After his opera company went bankrupt, Handel popularized the oratorio to great success. He was popular and respected until his death; 3000 mourners attended his funeral at Westminster Abby.
The Classical Era
(1750 - 1820)
Characteristics of Classical MusicContrast of mood - Contrasting themes, sections within a movement, movements of a larger work; changes in emotion are typical of classical composition. The unity comes from logical form and harmony.
More rhythmic variation - In line with contrasting moods, there are contrasting rhythms. Pauses, syncopations, unexpected accents add interest; rhythmic transitions may be sudden or gradual.
Homophonic texture - The emphasis on tuneful melody (see below) and logical harmony lend to a largely homophonic texture, in contrast to the mostly polyphonic texture of the mature Baroque. In line with contrast of mood, however, works shift smoothly between homophony and polyphony. Melodic imitation, sometimes overlapping, remains important as well.
Singable melodies - Balanced two-phrase melodies, often folk or folk-like melodies, simple, tuneful, easy to remember and sing make up the themes of much classical era music.
Dynamics - In addition to sudden shifts as in the Baroque, gradual shifts (the crescendo and diminuendo) play an important role. The piano, with its ability to play contrasting dynamics, gradually replaced the harpsichord as the primary keyboard instrument during this era.
Composers, Patrons, and Public
The era was a time of social upheaval: the American Revolution, the French Revolution and the rise of a middle class. Patronage remained both common and important; Haydn spent most of his career serving the aristocratic Esterhazy family, and Mozart ran into great financial difficulty after leaving the servitude of the prince-archbishop of Salzburg. However, not only wealthy nobles and the Church, but now also a growing merchant middle class were consumers of music.Though most music was still composed to meet specific demands and commissions, times were changing, and the way was paved for the Romantic "art for art's sake" ideal.
Important Genres and Forms
The Symphony - The classical era's great contribution to instrumental music. The typical classical symphony lasts about thirty minutes and is made up of four contrasting but related movements: the first movement is fast, and usually in sonata form (see below); the second movement by contrast is slow and contemplative; the third, dance-like; and the fourth lively and brilliant. The symphony shows the range of tone color and dynamics possessed by the classical orchestra. Haydn wrote over 100 symphonies; Mozart wrote over 40. Beethoven wrote only nine, but his were more extensive and developed than the earlier composers.'
The Concerto - A three movement work (Fast - Slow - Fast, almost a sort of mini-symphony) for solo instrument and orchestra. It showed off the virtuosity of the soloist, especially through an improvised cadenza. Most often, the solo instrument was a violin or piano; but wind instruments like trumpet, oboe, flute and clarinet were also featured.
Chamber Music - as the name implies, music intended to be performed in a smaller room, by two to nine musicians. Common groupings were the string quartet (two violins, viola and cello), and the piano trio (violin, cello and piano). Many other groupings also appear.
Sonata Form - (a.k.a. sonata-allegro form): A lot of compositions, especially first movements of Classical, Romantic and 20th Century symphonies and string quartets take this form.
Exposition (1st theme - tonic key / 2nd theme - dominant (or related) key)
Development (new treatment of themes; modulation to many keys)
Recapitulation (both themes now in tonic key)
Coda, or closing section - in tonic keyBroadly: stability --> conflict --> resolution; stability or ABA form
Theme and Variations Form - a basic musical idea (the theme) is repeated and changed with each repetition (contrast of mood). It might change key, or character, instrumentation, harmony, it might be highly ornamented. Theme, variation 1, variation 2, variation 3.... (A, A1,A2, A3....)
Rondo Form - The tuneful theme comes back again and again, between contrasting sections, which may or may not be similar to one another: ABACABA, or or ABACA, or even ABACADA.
Minuet and Trio Form - The minuet has its roots in a French dance, and is in triple meter.
A: opening (minuet) made up of repeated smaller units aa' ba' ba'
B: trio (quieter section) cc dc' dc'
A: minuet repeated, but without the smaller section repeats: aba'This form often makes up the third movement of a symphony or string quartet.
Important Composers
Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) Austrian
Often credited as the "father of the modern symphony -- Papa Haydn," spent most of his career under the patronage of the wealthy and powerful Hungarian noble family Esterhazy. He was respected as a musician and a director; he was good-humored, and prolific in his musical output. He was famous and wealthy when he died at the age of 77.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1792) Austrian
Haydn was a friend of the younger Mozart and said of him "Mozart is the greatest composer the world possess now." As Bach embodied the mature Baroque, so Mozart embodies the High Classical Era. He began his career as a child prodigy, performing for kings and princesses at the age of six. (He precociously proposed to Marie Antoinette at Versailles). He wrote his first symphony at the age of eight. The movie Amadeus portrays his life and personality with good accuracy, and I recommend it. His output of symphonies, concertos, operas and chamber music was prolific and definitive even though he lived only to the age of 36.
(Ludwig van Beethoven)Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827), German, often gets his own chapter in music history textbooks: he is viewed as the transitional figure between the Classical and the Romantic Eras. He is to music what Shakespeare is to literature; what Michelangelo is to painting. Deafness diminished his career as a pianist and a conductor, but his emotional pain never lessened his composition. He is responsible for many musical innovations (often misunderstood during his own time) which flowered in the Romantic.
The Romantic Era
(1820-1900)Characteristics of Romantic Music
Individuality of Style - More than ever, each composer has a unique voice. Today the trained listener can tell in a few minutes or even seconds, whether a piece is by Schumann or Chopin, Wagner or Brahms.
Expressive Aims and Subjects - Romantic love is a popular theme, as is the exotic. The idea is to express emotion.
Nationalism and Exoticism - Composers and audiences alike are fascinated with "anywhere but here, any time but now." At the same time, music begins to develop national flavor, especially through the exploitation of folk melodies.
Program Music - The idea that music can tell an extra-musical story or express an extra-musical sentiment plays a major role in much music of this era.
Varied and Expressive Tone Color - Romantic composers are more concerned than ever with instrumentation; the orchestra expands to include new instruments; instrumentation specified in score. Valved brass allows players to now cope with chromatic notes.
Expanded Harmony - More dissonance, more chromaticism (notes from outside the key) more modulation (shifts among keys), and more distant modulation color Romantic harmony. There is more emphasis on tension, less on resolution (tonic).
Expanded Range of Dynamics, Pitch, Tempo - Always pushing the envelope, composers want: higher, lower, louder, softer! Rubato, or variations in tempo, intensifies expression.
Romantic Composers and Their Public
Beethoven pioneered the idea of the composer as a free artist; Romantics began to write music not for specific occasion, for comission, but to fulfill an inner need of expression. At the same time, social conditions (The French Revolution) changed the climate; many aristocrats could no longer afford to maintain private orchestras, opera houses or composers.
While some wealthy patrons still managed to support a fortunate few (like Tschaikowsky), most Romantic composers began to rely on publication and public performance for their livelihood; they wrote, more and more, for the middle class which was growing in both size and prosperity.Important Genres
The miniature and the monumental (extremes) become important. The forms of the classical era remain prevailent, but are expanded. New forms / genres which appear in the Romantic Era incluce:
The Art Song / Song Cycle - The German "lied," pronounced "leet," is a composition for solo voice and piano in which the piano accompaniment serves as an interpretive partner to the voice, and is of equal importance. Can be strophic (music repeats itself with each stanza) or through-composed (new music to express the text throughout). A song cycle is a related set of lieder (pl. of lied).
Program Music, (see above) especially the Symphonic Poem, a one-movement composition which could take a variety of forms.
Piano Music, largely with a three-voice texture, became more and more important, in no small part because of dramatic improvements in the sonority of the instrument itself (an improved sustain pedal and a stronger, cast iron frame made the piano louder and more expressive).
Important Composers
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827), German transition from the Classical
Franz Schubert (1797-1828), Austrian lieder
Frederec Chopin (1810-49), Polish/French piano music
Felix Mendelssohn (1809-47), German adhered to Classic forms
Robert Schumann (1810-56), German also a noted music critic
Franz Liszt ((1811-86), Hungarian a virtuoso pianist
Hector Berlioz (1812-69), French Symphonie Fantastique
Richard Wagner (1813-83), German leitmotif and Gesamtkunswerk
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901), Italian opera composer
Clara Schumann (1819-96), German Robert's wife; talented pianist
Johannes Brahms (1833-97), German a traditionalist
Peter Tchaikovsky (1840-93), Russian benefactor of vonMeck, wrote balletEach of these, besides having of course important impact in music history, has a fascinating biography as an individual and a composer. I highly recommend further study!
The Twentieth Century
(1900-2000)Characteristics of 20th Century Music
Tone Color - More important than ever before. Additional tone colors; extreme ranges; noiselike and percussive sounds become standard (for example, flutter-tonguing on wind instruments, and striking the strings with the bow on stringed instruments). There is less emphasis on blend, and more on individual instruments' sounds.
Harmony - "The emancipation of dissonance." Harmonic principles governing chord movement, consonance and dissonance are abandoned. There is still a feeling of tension and (sometimes) release, but dissonant chords may now be considered stable. New ways of organizing vertical sounds (chords) emerge: Polychords (two different triads), quartal chords (based on the interval of a 4th instead of the 3rd), and tone clusters (as from striking a group of adjacent keys on a piano). New concepts of tonality, such as atonality (no pitch center) and serialism (equal use of of 12 pitch classes, shape the way music is organized.
Rhythm - becomes less regular, unpredictable. Ostinatos (repeated patterns), polyrhythms (contrasting, independent rhythms happening simultaneously), irregular, changing, meter, unusual accents, and syncopations are hallmarks of twentieth century music.
Melody - often difficult to sing; wide leaps, influences of rhythm and harmony characteristics above; irregular phrases -- in general there is much less emphasis on "melody" as we think of it in the conventional sense.
Music and Musicians in Society
Technological advances make profound impact on the nature of music: phonograph, tape, radio, television, and new digital/computer technology make the living room the concert hall. Music reaches a larger audience than ever, and is in fact pervasive in many aspects of modern life (musak; elevator music; music on "hold"...)
Music of previous eras reaches widespread audiences through recordings; there is an established concert and operatic repertoire which is more in demand than contemporary works (this is a new situation in music history).
American Jazz and pop music sweep the world.
"Serious" music responds to world conditions as described above.
Universities and colleges replace the church and nobility as de facto "patrons of music."
Important Genres
"isms"Impressionism - term borrowed from painting. "Objective." Whole tone scales, parallel chord movement, unresolved dissonance, especially seventh and ninth chords. "Shimmering, floating quality."
Expressionism - extremely subjective approach of Schoenberg, Berg and Webern. "Art should express the inner consciousness of its creator rather than external reality," thus, extremes, distortion, exaggeration.
Primitivism - the deliberate evocation of primitive power through insistent rhythms and percussive sounds, as in Stravinsky's Rite of Spring.
Neoclassicism - emotional restraint, balance and clarity, a return to forms and stylistic features of the 18th century.
Nationalism - late Romantic trend, deliberate use of folk music and themes to give music a distinct national flavor.
Serialism - for example, Schoenberg's 12 tone technique, a new means of organizing pitches which ensures each is used equally. A unique sound ensues.
Minimalism- as in the music of Steve Reich--that which is minimal is change. Soundscapes with subtle and gradual changes to repeating patterns which are hypnotic and interesting when one listens closely.
Avant-garde - on the leading edge of a change in style.
Selected Composers
(there are many others; arguably of equal importance to these listed; this is a limited scope class)
Claude Debussy (French, 1862-1918) IMPRESSIONISM. Influenced by Wagner (he was both attracted and repelled) and Asian music. "One must drown the sense of tonality." His dissonances do not resolve, but "float."
Igor Stravinsky (Russian, 1882-1971) PRIMITIVISM, NEOCLASSICISM. Astute and businesslike in his composing (success professionally). His Rite of Spring caused a riot at its debut.
Arnold Schoenberg (Austrian, 1874-1951) SERIALISM, EXPRESSIONISM. His 12 tone system was a completely new and different way of organizing sound. His personality inspired loyalty in his students; two went on to become famous composers (in the serial style): Berg and Webern.
*so I left out a lot! If you would like more comprehensive, but less comprehensible coverage, check out the "lecture notes" from my International Baccalaureate music course
Source credit (especially layout) to: Roger Kamien, Music, An Appreciation
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